habitat at home

Wildflower or weed? Recognizing perennial wildflower seedlings

Woman in a red shirt and green puffy vest plants seeds in a raised bed filled with soil. Orange stakes mark where rows of seeds will be planted.
You can plant seeds of native, perennial wildflowers into well-prepared soil in the fall. But how will you recognize your seedlings in the spring? Photo credit: Jody Benedict, Cornell IPM

So, you planted seeds of native, perennial wildflowers in some well-prepared soil last fall, letting Mother Nature do the seed stratification for you. You even carefully labeled the spot where you planted your seeds. Now seedlings are sprouting…but are they your wildflowers? Or are they weeds?

Last fall, I also planted a bunch of perennial wildflower seeds in some raised beds. Unfortunately, these beds had last been used as a demonstration weed garden. So, I’ve got large deposits in my weed seed bank. Even though I labeled my seeds, it’s taking careful observation to spot the emerging wildflowers. Also, I’m spending a lot of time pulling weeds. I’m sharing what I’m learning to make your wildflower ID easier!

Raised bed filled with smoothed soil and two rows of orange wooden stakes running down the middle of the bed
A labeled orange stake marks the beginning of a row of perennial wildflower seeds planted in November 2024.

A few general tips for wildflower seedling identification

Unless you have been doing years of meticulous weed management, chances are there will be at least a few weeds sprouting amongst your wildflowers. Here are a few general tips to help you distinguish weed from wildflower, no matter what you planted:

  • Know your monocots and dicots. Cotyledons are the very first, often quite simple, leaves to emerge from a seed. Grasses are common monocotyledons (monocots for short) and produce a single, narrow, spikey first leaf. Subsequent (true) leaves will also be narrow and spikey. Many wildflowers (Ohio spiderwort being a notable exception) are dicotyledons, or dicots. The first leaves (cotyledons) of dicots emerge from the seed in a pair. Subsequent leaves may emerge singly or in pairs, but these true leaves are usually wider and less spikey than monocots. For this reason, you may have heard dicots also described as “broadleaves.” If you planted seeds of a dicot (most wildflowers), and you see monocot seedlings, they are probably weeds.
  • Notice patterns. Do you see a similar seedling distributed across an entire garden bed? It’s likely a weed. Is something sprouting only near the stake where you marked wildflower seeds last fall? It’s more likely to be what you planted.
  • When it doubt, watch and see. Weeds usually grow quite a bit faster than your perennial wildflowers. If you aren’t sure if something is a weed or a wildflower, wait a week or so to see how it changes. Cotyledons usually look very different from the true leaves of a plant, and as the seedling grows, it will become easier to identify. For those interested in identifying weeds early, this Weed Seedling Identification Guide from Montana State University has some nice pictures of weeds when they are very small.
Many rosettes of small plants with many oval-shaped leaves growing in front of three different orange wooden stakes, each marking a row where wildflower seeds were planted.
I don’t know what these plants are, but the same kind of seedling is evenly distributed across a space where I planted several different wildflower seeds, and not in rows. It is a weed.

Wildflower seedlings I’ve identified

Some of the following pictures are from the raised beds where I planted seeds last fall. Others are from seeds I stratified and germinated inside.

Butterfly milkweed (Asclepias tuberosa)

The cotyledons of butterfly milkweed are fairly broad and look “fleshier” than most weed seedlings. The true leaves which emerge next are much narrower.

Close-up of seedlings with broad, slightly fleshy cotyledons and narrow true leaves emerging in pairs.
You can start to see the narrower true leaves starting to emerge on these butterfly milkweed seedlings, in contrast to the larger cotyledons.
Larger seedlings with pairs of narrow leaves. Wider cotyledons are still visible at the bottom of the plant.
As the butterfly milkweed seedlings grow, all of their true leaves are narrow and produced in pairs opposite each other.

Hyssop (Agastache nepetoides)

These pictures are of giant yellow hyssop seedlings (Agastache nepetoides), although I suspect that anise hyssop (Agastache foeniculum) seedlings look similar. True leaves are produced in pairs. At least on the early true leaves, the veins are reddish and slightly recessed, contributing to a slightly “puckered” leaf appearance. Leaf edges are broadly scalloped. Later true leaves will be more arrow-shaped compared to the rounder early true leaves.

Tiny seedlings with pairs of cotyledons and true leaves growing in potting mix. The true leaves have red veins and look slightly puckered.
Especially when they are small, leaves of giant yellow hyssop look a little puckered.
Cluster of small seedlings growing out of potting mix with pairs of round or heart-shaped leaves and scalloped edges.
On older seedlings, the veins of the true leaves are still reddish, but the leaves look less puckered. The edges are scalloped.

Blue false indigo (Baptisia australis)

Blue false indigo is in the same family as peas and beans; a legume. Its seeds are fairly large and its cotyledons are large and fleshy, similar to butterfly milkweed. As the true leaves start to emerge, they will look more like pea leaves.

Seedlings with fleshy cotyledons emerging from soil
Blue false indigo seedlings emerging from soil. The first true leaf is still folded up and you can’t see its shape in this picture.
Several cardboard pots with seedlings that look sort of like peas emerging from them.
As blue false indigo seedlings grow, their first true leaf is broad but thin. As the plant grows, leaves will start to look more like those of peas or clover.

Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea)

Purple coneflower, or echinacea has fairly non-descript cotyledons. Its first true leaf will look more like the leaves of the mature plant; heart- or arrow-shaped and slightly hairy. One true leaf emerges at a time.

Two seedlings emerging from potting mix. One has small cotyledons that are still unfolding. The other has a pair of cotyledons and a single heart-shaped true leaf.
Young purple coneflower seedling.
A small echinacea seedling growing amidst grassy weeds.
Leaves of more mature purple coneflower plants shaped like arrows or elongated hearts with slightly toothed edges.

Wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa)

Unlike the previous three wildflowers, wild bergamot produces true leaves in pairs, always opposite each other. The early true leaves are heart-shaped. Later true leaves start to become more elongated with toothed edges. The seedlings I’ve spotted have a reddish or purplish tinge around the outer edges of their leaves.

A small seedling with pairs of heart-shaped leaves. Leaf edges have a slightly purple color.
Wild bergamot seedlings produce true leaves in pairs.
Seedling with older pairs of leaves heart-shaped, and newest pair of leaves longer and toothed.
Older true leaves of wild bergamot are more elongated than the early true leaves, and toothed edges start to become more prominent.

Tall white beardtongue (Penstemon digitalis)

Tall white beardtongue seedlings also produce leaves with reddish edges, but both the edges and surface of the leaves are smooth; no tiny hairs. It produces true leaves in opposite pairs like wild bergamot.

Tiny seedlings with opposite pairs of leaves and purplish edges growing in moist potting mix.
Young tall white beardtongue seedlings look similar to wild bergamot seedlings.
Two seedlings with opposite pairs of leaves and purplish and smooth leaf edges.
I’m pretty sure these are tall white beardtongue seedlings, but they’re sprouting in my raised bed (with plenty of weed seeds around), so I’m going to keep watching these.

Blackeyed susans (Rudbeckia hirta)

First, it’s important to note that multiple species in the genus Rudbeckia may be called “blackeyed susan”. Rudbeckia hirta plants have very, very fuzzy leaves, and the first true leaf – a single leaf – is also extremely fuzzy. I’ve started seeds of different varieties of R. hirta, and the coloration of the seedlings is slightly different, as shown in the two pictures below. I haven’t tried growing them from seed, but I suspect that R. fulgida, whose true leaves are much less hairy than R. hirta would also produce less hairy seedlings.

Tiny seedling with a pair of small, round cotyledons and a single very fuzzy and more oblong true leaf. Cotyledons and true leaf are green.
Seedlings of Rudbeckia hirta have extremely fuzzy true leaves.
Tiny seedling with a pair of small, round, red cotyledons and a single very fuzzy and more oblong true leaf with a slightly red edge.
This is a different variety, but still R. hirta. Notice the cotyledons are more red.

 Smooth blue aster (Symphyotrichum laeve)

As the name suggests, smooth blue asters produce leaves with smooth edges, and few (but not quite zero) hairs. The cotyledons are pretty non-descript, and the true leaves – produced one at a time, instead of in pairs – are roughly heart-shaped. I’ve noticed that the newest true leaf emerges curled up length-wise, unrolling as it grows.

Group of seedlings with smooth cotyledons and true leaves.
Smooth blue aster seedlings have smooth, heart-shaped or oblong true leaves.
Close-up of a group of seedlings with smooth leaves. An arrow and text box label an emerging curled leaf.
New true leaves of smooth blue aster emerge rolled up lengthwise.

New York ironweed (Vernonia noveboracensis)

So far, the New York ironweed seedlings look non-descript, both when they first germinate, and through at least a couple sets of true leaves. Their true leaves are produced in pairs and their surface is smooth. Older true leaves have subtly toothed edges.

Tiny seedlings emerging from moist potting mix with paired cotyledons and tiny true leaves.
New York ironweed seedlings look fairly non-descript and may be difficult to distinguish from weeds.
Older seedlings growing in cardboard pots with smooth leaf surfaces.
Older New York ironweed seedlings start to produce true leaves with slightly-toothed edges, but the leaf surface is still smooth.

Golden alexanders (Zizia aurea)

Golden alexanders are in the carrot family, along with parsley. Their first true leaves are wide and heart-shaped with very regularly toothed edges, produced one at a time. This is in stark contrast to the cotyledons, which are narrow and might almost be mistaken for grass seedlings at first glance. As the plants grow, true leaves will be made up of three leaflets.

Cardboard pots filled with potting mix, each containing several small seedlings with long, narrow leaves.
Golden alexander seedlings emerge from soil or potting mix with pairs of long, narrow cotyledons.
Seedlings growing in carboard pots filled with potting mix. Both the tooth-edged heart-shaped first true leaf and the long narrow cotyledons are visible.
The first true leaves of golden alexander are heart-shaped single leaflets with very regularly toothed edges, similar to a single parsley leaflet.
Seedling producing compound leaves made of three leaflets.
This golden alexander seedling is a year or two old, and its true leaves are now sets of three leaflets, but each leaflet is still heart-shaped and has toothed edges.

So far, I think this is one of the easiest perennial wildflowers to start from seed. They readily germinate either inside after cold-moist stratification, or if you plant them outside in the fall. Once they start producing true leaves, they are very distinctive and easy to spot amongst weeds in the garden…unless you happened to plant them where a parsley plant went to seed the previous year!

 

Those are the wildflowers I’ve successfully germinated (and recognized) so far! As more (hopefully) sprout, I’ll add pictures and descriptions.

 

 

This post was written by Amara Dunn-Silver, Biocontrol Specialist with the Cornell IPM Program.

This work is supported by the NYS Departments of Environmental Conservation and Agriculture and Markets.

habitat at home

Stratifying perennial wildflower seeds

seeds held in the open palms of a white woman; wildflowers can be seen in the background
Many native perennial wildflower seeds need to experience environmental conditions that break their dormancy before they will germinate. Photo credit: Cornell CALS Communications

Did you miss your opportunity to plant perennial wildflower seeds directly in the ground last fall? Don’t despair!

If you happen to have some bare ground prepared but just didn’t plant the seeds, you could wait until late winter and sprinkle seeds on bare soil. This practice is known as frost seeding and is sometimes used on farms to sow cover crop seed. Cycles of freezing and thawing soil help work the seeds into the ground.

If you don’t have bare ground already prepared, or if starting seeds inside sounds more appealing, you can stratify your seeds inside now. January is a great time to do that, at least if you are living in USDA plant hardiness zone 5 or 6.

What is seed stratification?

Stratification is the process of breaking the dormancy of seeds; signaling that they can “wake up” and be ready to germinate. Seed stratification generally requires exposing the seeds to the right amount of moisture and the right temperature for the right length of time. Some examples include:

  • Hot water soak – Pour hot water over seeds and allow them to soak
  • Cold moist stratification – Mix seeds with sterile sand, vermiculite, or another substance that won’t hold too much moisture (e.g., damp paper towel or coffee filter). Make sure that whatever medium you use is only damp and not too wet. Put the mixture in a plastic bag or closed container in your refrigerator for the required amount of time.

Last spring I described the different types of stratification (and scarification) recommended for some of the perennial wildflowers I’ve been growing in central New York. For many of these species, 30-60 days of cold moist stratification is recommended. So, if you start stratifying your seeds now (late January), they’ll be ready to move to a warm (and often well-lit) spot by the end of March. This will give them 6-8 weeks to germinate and grow before you transplant them outside in the spring.

How do I stratify my seeds?

Cold moist stratification – keeping seeds cool and moist for an extended period – works well for many perennial wildflower seeds. That’s the method I use most often. Sometimes multiple stratification methods will work for the same wildflower species. Don’t be afraid to experiment!

Several containers (plastic and glass jars, paper and plastic envelopes) of seeds and a permanent marker laying on a desktop.
Perennial wildflower seeds I collected last fall. Full disclosure, I don’t know if all these species require stratification to germinate.

 

Cold-stratifying seeds at home can be very simple. I’ve been successful with just some paper towels and Ziploc bags. Don’t forget a permanent marker. Future you will appreciate the time you spent labeling your seeds now! I like to write directly on the paper towel in which I will wrap the seeds and include the date.

Paper towels labeled with names of wildflowers and date next to a permanent marker and a plastic Ziploc bag.
Label the paper towels you will use for cold moist stratification. I recommend including the plant species and date.

 

Get the labeled paper towels wet, then squeeze all the excess water out. You want them to be damp but not dripping. Sprinkle seeds into the middle of the paper towel, then wrap the seeds up.

Several damp paper towels on a countertop, each with a small pile of seeds in the middle
Sprinkle perennial wildflower seeds into the middle of each labeled, damp paper towel.

 

Two damp paper towels in different stages of being folded around the seeds
Fold the damp paper towel around the seeds.

 

If the paper towels are folded so that seeds won’t fall out, you can put multiple “packets” of damp paper towels in the same sealable plastic bag. You could also re-use a plastic container. The goal is to seal the moisture in so that the seeds don’t dry out.

Six folded paper towels, each labeled with the name of a different wildflower and a date.
Seeds neatly wrapped in dated, damp paper towels and ready to spend some time in the refrigerator.

 

Now put your bag or container of seeds in your refrigerator. Write a note on your calendar or set a reminder on a digital device to pull the seeds out in 30-60 days, depending on the species. See last spring’s blog post to learn how long to keep different wildflower seeds in the cold before you try to germinate them.

Plastic Ziploc bag filled with folded paper towel packets of seeds on a refrigerator shelf
If you share your refrigerator with family, friends, or co-workers, make sure to label your plastic bag or let them know what you’re up to so that your seeds aren’t accidentally thrown away!

 

Germinating your seeds

When it’s time to take your seeds out of the refrigerator, start by preparing moist (but not too wet) potting mix. Pay attention to whether your seeds need light to germinate (should only be pressed into the surface of the potting mix), or can be buried. Just like your annual flower or vegetable seeds, many – but not all – perennial wildflower seeds also appreciate a warm spot (e.g., on a heat mat) when they are germinating.

 

I’ll let you know how my seed stratification worked. Happy seed-starting!

 

 

This post was written by Amara Dunn-Silver, Biocontrol Specialist with the NYSIPM Program.

 

This work is supported by NYS Departments of Environmental Conservation and Agriculture and Markets.

Announcements, website

Now available at the NYSIPM Biocontrol Website: Biocontrol Agent Profiles

From time to time I write a short post to let you know about the availability of new biocontrol resources. For example, a database to learn about insect classical biocontrol agents, spreadsheets summarizing biopesticide efficacy data, or biopesticide profiles. Today I’m excited to share with you the next phase of the Biocontrol section of the New York State Integrated Pest Management Program website (managed by yours truly) – biocontrol agent profiles!

First, a little history

Close to thirty years ago, Dr. Tony Shelton (now Professor Emeritus, Department of Entomology, Cornell University) launched a website called Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America. It included great information about the biology of biocontrol, individual articles about species or groups of biocontrol agents, and much more. As Dr. Shelton approached retirement, he reached out to me and NYSIPM and we agreed to take over managing and updating the site. Since then, I’ve been working on migrating content, updating it as I go.

What we’d done already

I started by moving over some basic content about the biology behind biocontrol. You can read about the differences among classical, conservation, and augmentative biocontrol. And you can learn about the different types of organisms that help control pests (and therefore act as biocontrol agents): predators and parasitoids, weed-feeders, insect-killing nematodes, and biopesticides. I’ve also created many resources to help people use biocontrol. This section of the website includes information about recognizing insect natural enemies of pests, creating habitat that feeds and shelters insect natural enemies and pollinators, spreadsheets summarizing the efficacy of biopesticides against different pests in different crops, and a (slowly) growing collection of biopesticide profiles to help growers use these products more effectively.

So, what’s new? 42 biocontrol agent profiles!

Close-up of a black and orange beetle eating a smaller insect behind the words “Biocontrol Agents – Organisms that do biocontrol”
Biocontrol agents are organisms that do biocontrol (control pests). Profiles of 42 biocontrol agents are now available on NYSIPM’s website.

As I planned the migration of the articles about individual biocontrol agents from Dr. Shelton’s website, I knew that I wanted to make it easy for readers to quickly find answers to common questions (Does it work? What pests are targeted?), break up the text into smaller sections, and retain the valuable (and more technical) information that made Dr. Shelton’s website valuable to scientists, too. I am incredibly grateful to all the authors who revised or wrote brand new content that fulfills these goals. The first 42 biocontrol agent profiles are now up on the website! Currently, you can browse them based on either the type of pest they target (insects or weeds, for now), or you can browse by the type of biocontrol agent. We’re still working on ways to expand how you can search for biocontrol agents of interest.

Under the heading ‘sulfur knapweed moth’ is a picture of a yellow and brown moth against a blue background. To the right is a box describing which pests are targeted, whether the biocontrol agent is commercially available, its scientific name, and what type of biocontrol agent it is.
Each new biocontrol agent profile has updated pictures and summarizes information in smaller blocks of text.

I’m excited about:

  • New and more pictures
  • Compatibility with mobile devices and more accessible
  • Organized to provide straightforward answers to frequently asked questions
  • Consistent format so you can look for the same information in the same part of each profile

So, check them out and let me know what you think! There are still many more articles to revise and migrate, and new biocontrol agents to add. If you are someone with expertise in a biocontrol agent and would like to revise or write one of these profiles, please get in touch with me!

 

This post was written by Amara Dunn-Silver, Biocontrol Specialist with the NYSIPM Program.

 

This work is supported by NYS Departments of Environmental Conservation and Agriculture and Markets. It was also funded in part by the Northeastern IPM Center through Grant #2018-70006-28882 from the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Crop Protection and Pest Management, Regional Coordination Program.

Logo for the Northeastern IPM Center

 

Logo for the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, a part of the U.S. Department of Agriculture

habitat at home

Fall is for planting perennial wildflower seeds

Mixture of seeds held in a white woman’s hand. In the background you can see a rain gauge, bare soil, and yellow and pink flowers blooming.
Fall is a great time to plant perennial wildflower seed.

Perhaps you have heard that “fall is for planting.” Did you also know that fall is not just for transplanting perennial plants, it’s also a great time to plant seeds of perennials. Here I will focus on seeds of perennial plants that will provide food (pollen and nectar) and shelter for insect natural enemies and pollinators.

Many people understandably think about spring as the season for seeding. When it comes to vegetables and flowers that grow as annuals in New York State (and other places with similar climates), you’re generally right. (Of course there are exceptions to every rule.) But many perennial wildflower species have adapted to produce seeds that won’t germinate immediately. Certain conditions have to prepare and signal these seeds to germinate. They require stratification prior to germination. If you are trying to germinate these seeds, you can stratify them yourself, or you can let winter cycles of freezing and thawing and fluctuating soil moisture do the work for you by planting perennial wildflower seeds in the fall.

How to sow perennial wildflower seeds in the fall

If you want to try this yourself, now (September) is a good time to prepare soil in a spot where there aren’t a lot of other plants growing already. If you’re trying to convert lawn or a weedy spot into a wildflower planting, it will be easier if you’ve spent at least one growing season managing weeds. But, if the summer flew by and you are just digging up a fresh spot now, don’t despair. You may just have more weeds to deal with in the spring. (More on weeds later!)

Once your soil is ready, put a note on your calendar to remind yourself to plant your seeds a bit later. In central NY, mid-October through December is a good time to sow perennial seeds outside. You want to wait until it’s too cool for the seeds to germinate this fall. Perennial wildflower seeds will germinate and the young plants will establish best if you invest some time in creating a nice seed bed for them first.

  1. Ideally, select a spot where the soil is mostly bare. Pull or dig out remaining weeds. Depending on when you want to plant seeds, you could use cardboard or a tarp to help you kill existing vegetation first. You could also use an herbicide, but make sure you select a product that is labeled as an herbicide. Do NOT mix your own herbicide from ingredients around your home. Always read and follow the label when applying any pesticide, including herbicides.
  2. Loosen the soil. You can use a shovel, rake, digging fork, or other tool, depending on the size of your planting area. You want the soil to be nice and crumbly and have “nooks” for the seeds to fall in to.
Hand fork resting on freshly-weeded bare soil next to a patch of weeds
Perennial wildflower seeds benefit from soil preparation. If possible, pick a spot where few weeds or other vegetation are growing. Remove whatever vegetation is there to leave bare soil.

If you prepare your soil now (late September), make sure you check it just before you are ready to plant your seeds. Repeat step 2 if necessary to provide your seeds with a nice seed bed. And remove any weeds that may have sprouted!

  1. Between mid-October and December (in central NY), scatter the seed on the soil. If you are using a mixture of wildflower seeds, follow the instructions that came with them to spread the seeds at the correct density. If you are just planting a few seeds, you might sprinkle them in rows so they will be easier for you to spot when they start germinating.
  2. Gently mix the seeds into the soil, but no deeper than ¼ of an inch. Generally, the smaller the seed, the shallower it should be planted. If you have a larger area, a rake is a good tool to use. If you are planting a few seeds per species, you could use a hand rake or even a fork from the kitchen. Get creative!
  3. Press the seeds into the soil. You want the seeds to be pressed tightly against the surrounding soil. You can use your hands, feet, or a roller depending on the area you are planting.
  4. Label your seeds. Make sure you know where to look for your seedlings in the spring! Add some markers to remind you where to look.
A rectangular patch of bare soil surrounded by grass with footprint marks in rows
You can use your feet to stomp your seeds into the soil ensuring good seed to soil contact.

In Spring 2025 I will share some tips and pictures to help you recognize your seedlings as they start to germinate (amongst the inevitable weeds that will be there, too).

A few words on weeds

Unless you have spent literally years depleting the soil of weed seeds, it is inevitable that there will be some weeds germinating with your perennial wildflower seeds in the spring. If you are planting a larger area with a seed mix and planning to manage (annual) weeds with mowing, this is not such a problem. You will be mowing the area for the first few years to prevent annual weeds from producing seed and effectively reducing the weed seed bank. Like other perennials, your wildflowers will survive the mowing just fine.

If you are planting just a few seeds of each species and carefully marking their location, this will help you know where to look for germinating perennials in the spring. Planting in rows (or some other pattern) may also help, but you’ll need to be careful not to disrupt your pattern when you gently work the seeds into the top ¼ inch of soil.

Here is more information about managing weeds when creating habitat for beneficial insects.

Another alternative

To get around some of the above weed challenges, I’m told that the “Winter Sowing Method” developed by Trudi Davidoff works well for native perennial wildflowers. But you should probably delay planting the seeds until November or December if you’re using this method. Essentially, you create a mini greenhouse using potting mix in a repurposed transparent plastic container (like a milk jug) with drainage holes. Leaving the container outside and exposed to rain allows the seeds to experience temperature and moisture fluctuations. Since your seeds are planted in potting mix in a discrete container, you won’t be fighting weed seeds and you’ll know where to look for your seedlings. An episode of the Growing Greener podcast describes how this method is used for native perennials.

 

Check out my full instructions for creating habitat for beneficial insects to learn more about other methods for establishing these plants. And remember that growing perennial wildflowers from seed will take some time. Be patient!

Dark and light purple asters and goldenrod flowers blooming
It will be a few years before your wildflowers look like this, but they are worth the wait!

 

This post was written by Amara Dunn-Silver, Biocontrol Specialist with the NYSIPM Program.

This work is supported by NYS Departments of Environmental Conservation and Agriculture and Markets.

Announcements, habitat at home

NYSIPM co-hosts Geneva Grows Native Event August 3, 10, 17, & 24, 2024

White daisies, yellow coreopsis, blue cornflowers, as well as pink and red flowers growing in a bed along a street
One of many flower beds full of native plants in downtown Geneva, NY

For years, the New York State Integrated Pest Management Program (NYSIPM) has been demonstrating how to create habitat for pollinators and insect natural enemies of pests by growing (especially native and perennial) flowers and grasses that feed and shelter these important insects. You may have attended a past Beneficial Insect Habitat Open House at our research field. This year, we’re bringing the conservation biocontrol information and demonstrations to the Geneva lakefront and partnering with the Geneva Business Improvement District, the City of Geneva Green Committee, and other community members to talk about the ways the City of Geneva is using native plants.

 

Clusters of red flowers with yellow centers on plants with feathery leaves (yarrow) growing next to a sidewalk with Seneca Lake in the background
Native plants provide many ecological benefits and make the shores of Seneca Lake even more beautiful.

Native plants are a key component of the green infrastructure the City of Geneva, NY has installed throughout downtown. In addition, numerous volunteers have dedicated countless hours to planting and maintaining native plants along Seneca Lake. The goal is to support native insects, wildlife, and the rest of the ecosystem, reduce water and maintenance needs, increase the ecological resilience of the City, and protect beautiful Seneca Lake.

You have four opportunities to attend this event. Stop by the Geneva Lakefront Gazebo near the Geneva Farmers Market between 8 AM and 1 PM on any of these Saturdays in August:

  • August 3
  • August 10
  • August 17
  • August 24

 

A bumble bee rests under a yellow and red blanketflower. A neighborhood street is in the background.
Just a small spot in your yard can provide beautiful blooms that feed and shelter pollinators and insect natural enemies of pests.

What you can expect:

  • Walking tours of Geneva’s native plantings
  • Ontario County 4-H members showcasing native ‘habitatscaping’ opportunities for families (Aug 17)
  • Practical resources from Cornell and others
  • Great information from local organizations like BluePrint Geneva and community members who have been caring for these plantings
  • Free seeds to help you grow your own native plants

 

Read all the details about this fun event for the whole family, and hope to see you there!

Image of a blackeyed susan flower with a bee on it and text that says 'Geneva Grows Native Join Geneva's native plant and insect journey! Activities for the whole family! Walking tours native plants, Scavenger hunt for beneficial insects, Seed giveaways, Learn to attract beneficial insects to your own yard. August 3, 10, 17, 24, 8 AM - 1 PM Geneva Lakefront Gazebo. New York State Integrated Pest Management Cornell AgriTech New York State Agricultural Experiment Station Geneva Business Improvement District.' There's also a QR code to a website to learn more.
Come join us and bring a friend!

 

This post was written by Amara Dunn-Silver, Biocontrol Specialist and Elizabeth Lamb, Ornamentals IPM Coordinator with the NYSIPM Program.

 

This work is supported by NYS Departments of Environmental Conservation and Agriculture and Markets and a grant from On the Canals.

agriculture

Biopesticides for tomato bacterial diseases: On-farm demos

row of tomato plants with some green fruit and a sign that says Double Nickel 1 qt/A alt. Kocide
On-farm demonstration of reducing copper applications by alternating with biopesticides to protect against tomato bacterial diseases.

Last summer I wrote about integrated pest management strategies (IPM) for tomato bacterial diseases and how biopesticides fit into strategies for managing these diseases. You’ll recall that research trials conducted at Cornell in Chris Smart’s lab indicated that you could replace some copper sprays with the biopesticides Double Nickel or LifeGard and achieve the same level of control of tomato bacterial diseases. In 2023, we wanted to demonstrate what this might look like on vegetable farms around New York State – Long Island, eastern NY, and western NY. Here’s what we observed.

 

Results from On-Farm Demos

Biopesticides are not a panacea for tomato bacterial disease problems. When disease pressure is severe and weather is favorable, bacterial diseases can be difficult to manage, even with copper-based fungicides. Canker is especially difficult to manage because the bacteria that cause the disease move systemically within the plant. Successful management of bacterial diseases in tomatoes requires the use of multiple IPM tools, including starting with clean seed and healthy transplants, and using new (or effectively disinfected) tomato stakes.

On farms that experienced tomato bacterial disease outbreaks, adding Double Nickel did not satisfactorily control bacterial disease. These farms had very uneven distribution of tomato bacterial canker across the fields, complicating comparisons between the Double Nickel alt. copper treatments and the copper only treatments. Two farms (in western NY) saw slight to moderate increases in fruit quality when they added Double Nickel sprays in between copper applications compared to applying copper every 10-14 days. This resulted in estimated 2% and 37% increases in fruit value, corresponding to an extra $19 (from nine harvests) or $72 (from four harvests) from 100 row feet of tomatoes. However, the Double Nickel sprays were in addition to copper sprays, not replacing them. We don’t know if applying copper every 7-10 days would have resulted in better disease control. On the third farm, we saw no benefit of replacing half of the copper applications with Double Nickel.

The two cooperating Long Island farms saw no bacterial disease in 2023. But replacing half of the copper applications with either Double Nickel or LifeGard still seemed to have economic advantages. We estimate that the value of their crops increased by 7% and 59%, or $244 and $1,617 per 100 row feet of tomatoes harvested four times. Note that the price for fresh tomatoes on Long Island is high compared to some other markets in NY. We used $5-$6/lb in our Long Island estimates. Also, we don’t know what would have happened if there had been a bacterial disease outbreak on these farms.

On all cooperating farms, we collected data on very small sections of the field (10-40 row feet of tomatoes). Estimated potential impacts on yield over much larger areas should be taken with a grain of salt.

Green Roma tomato fruit with both white spray residue and classic fruit symptoms of tomato bacterial canker – brown spots with a white ring around them
Tomato bacterial canker is a difficult disease to manage, even with weekly copper applications. Use of multiple integrated pest management (IPM) tools yields the best results. Photo credit: Crystal Stewart-Courtens.

 

Economics

We researched some prices for pesticides from a few different suppliers. Below are the assumptions we made to calculate some price estimates and make comparisons among some biopesticides and copper pesticides. Prices for pesticides can vary across regions and time. If you think any of these numbers are far out of line, please let Amara know!

If you are applying… and a container costs you… and you apply at a rate of… Your cost per A per application is:
Actinovate AG $115/18 oz bag 7.5 oz/A (range on label is 3-12 oz) $48.00
Double Nickel LC $85.25/1 gal 1 qt/A (recommended for tomato bacterial diseases) $21.31
LifeGard WG $148/1 lb bag 4.5 oz/100 gal and 50 gal/A = 2.25 oz/A $20.80
copper (Kocide 3000-O or Badge X2) $102/10 lb bag 1.25 lb Kocide, 1.8 lb Badge X2 (highest rate on label) $15.00
copper (Badge SC) $150/2.5 gal 1.8 pt/A (highest rate on label) $13.58
Copper (Champ Formula 2 Flowable) $139.95/2.5 gal 1.33 pt/A $9.31
copper (Cueva) $114/2.5 gal 1 gal/A (label rate is 0.5-2 gal) $46.27

As you can see, the biopesticides in the table range from fairly similar in price (Double Nickel and LifeGard) to approximately 5 times the cost of the less expensive coppers (Actinovate). Each copper application replaced with either Double Nickel or LifeGard is estimated to increase the pesticide cost by $6-$12 per acre per application. If a grower makes eight applications in a season to protect tomatoes from bacterial diseases, this would be an increase of $24-$48 per acre for the season if half of the copper applications are replaced with Double Nickel or LifeGard. If a grower adds LifeGard or Double Nickel applications to a 14-day copper spray program, the cost increase is greater. Purchasing product for four additional applications costs an extra $84 per acre, not including other costs of making more applications, like fuel, labor, equipment depreciation, etc.

 

Protecting people and the environment

Replacing some copper sprays with biopesticides can have other benefits. For example, the following table compares restricted entry intervals (REIs), label signal words, and field use ecological Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) for several biopesticides and copper formulations. Shorter REIs indicate a pesticide has lower toxicity to agricultural workers. The signal word shows the relative acute toxicity of the pesticide to the pesticide applicator.

 

Product Active Ingredient (%) Rate REI Signal word Field Use Ecological EIQ1
Actinovate AG Streptomyces lydicus WYEC 108 (0.037%) 12 oz/A 4 hrs Caution NA
Double Nickel LC Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain D747 (98.85%) 1 qt/A 4 hrs none on label NA
LifeGard WG Bacillus mycoides isolate J (40%) 4.5 oz/A 4 hrs Caution NA
Serenade Opti2 Bacillus subtilis QST 713 (26.2%) 20 oz/A 4 hrs Caution 7.2
Badge SC copper hydroxide (15.36%); copper oxychloride (16.81%)3 1.8 pt/A 48 hrs Caution 40.1
Champ Formula 2 Flowable copper hydroxide (37.5%) 1.33 pt/A 48 hrs Warning 34.5
Cueva copper octanoate (10%) 2 gal/A 4 hrs Caution NA
Kocide 3000-O copper hydroxide (46.1%) 1.25 lb/A 48 hrs Caution 38.2
MasterCop copper sulfate pentahydrate (21.46%) 2 pt/A 48 hrs Danger 66.4

1 The Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) seeks to quantify the environmental impacts of pesticides. Higher numbers indicate more negative impacts. The values reported here are “field use” values, calculated based on the rates listed in the table. These values vary depending on how much product you use per acre. The ecological component summarizes risk to fish, birds, bees, and beneficial insects.

2 The active ingredient in Serenade Opti is in the EIQ database, while the active ingredients of the other biopesticides in this table are not. The EIQ for Serenade Opti is expected to be similar to those of Double Nickel and LifeGard because they have similar active ingredients. It may also be similar to the EIQ for Actinovate.

3 Only copper hydroxide – not copper oxychloride – was in the EIQ database, so this ecological EIQ was calculated using 32.17% copper hydroxide (sum of the percentages of the two active ingredients).

 

Other benefits of reducing copper applications on a farm could include:

  • It reduces the risk of selecting for tomato bacterial pathogens that are resistant to copper.
  • Many copper fungicides leave a visible residue on fruit, which may impact marketability if applied close to harvest.

 

Update on labels

In last summer’s post we noted that neither Double Nickel nor LifeGard included tomato bacterial canker on their labels. In New York State, formulations of these biopesticides now have 2(ee) labels that include this disease on tomatoes. Make sure you have a copy of both the original label and the 2(ee) label in your possession if you are using these products for tomato bacterial canker in NY. If you are in NY, you can find these and other labels through NYSPAD.

 

The Bottom Line

  • It is very important to use all your IPM tools for tomato bacterial disease management, especially for canker. If you are bringing canker to your field in seedlings or on tomato stakes, it will be very difficult to catch up with the disease using any pesticide if weather conditions favor disease.
  • Some biopesticides are competitively priced (per bottle and per acre) with copper formulations. Replacing a few copper applications with these products will not cost you much more.
  • Replacing some copper applications with biopesticides offers some additional benefits, including copper resistance management, and potentially reduced risk to the environment and human health.

 

 

Changes in pesticide registrations occur constantly and human errors are possible. Read the label before applying any pesticide. The label is the law. No endorsement of companies is made or implied.

 

This post was written by Amara Dunn-Silver, Biocontrol Specialist with the NYSIPM program. Thanks to collaborators Chris Smart, Professor in the School of Integrative Plant Science, Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology Section at Cornell University, Crystal Stewart-Courtens, Extension Vegetable Specialist, Eastern NY Commercial Horticulture Program; Elizabeth Buck, Cornell Vegetable Program; Margaret McGrath, Retired Faculty, School of Integrative Plant Science, Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology Section at Cornell University, and Sandra Menasha, Cornell Cooperative Extension, Suffolk County. Support for this project was provided by the NY Farm Viability Institute.

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habitat at home

Growing perennial wildflowers from seed

Pink echinacea, and pale purple wild bergamot flowers in a raised bed
Perennial wildflowers add both beauty and food for beneficial insects to your yard.

Why grow perennial wildflowers?

Native wildflowers feed and shelter beneficial insects that pollinate our plants and help us control pests. Beneficial insects include a diverse collection of pollinators — not just honey bees — as well as natural enemies (flies, wasps, beetles, bugs and other insects that kill pests). While not technically insects, spiders and predatory mites also serve as natural enemies of pests. Cooperating with insect natural enemies for pest control helps us reduce damage from pests while reducing risks to the environment and people from other pest management strategies like pesticides.

The pollen and nectar produced by these native flowers – and many non-native flowers – either directly feed these friendly insects, or feed other insects that are prey for natural enemies. The leaves and stems also provide shelter for beneficial insects year-round. While we’re focusing on flowers today, many grasses also provide this shelter. Beyond all the ecological benefits, native wildflowers are beautiful!

Preparing perennial seeds to germinate

Seeds with spikey tails held in the palm of a white woman’s hand
Growing perennial flowers from seed does take longer, but it can be fun and rewarding!

In this part of the world (now known as upstate New York), seeds from native perennial wildflowers that mature in summer and fall experience a lot of “weathering” between maturation and germination the following spring. This includes cycles of freezing and thawing temperatures as well as varying levels of moisture during the winter. They may even pass through the digestive system of animals. This is why planting perennial wildflower seed in the fall is a great option. You are allowing nature to do the work of preparing the seeds for germination in the spring. If you harvest seeds of native perennial wildflowers and want to start them in the spring with other seeds, you will need to do this work yourself.

Some seeds have very hard seed coats that need to be broken by physical force (for example scratching with sandpaper, a file, or a knife), heat (for example, submerging in boiling water), cold (for example, freezing), or chemicals (like a strong acid). This is called seed scarification. Seeds that require scarification – and those that don’t – may also require stratification, which signals to the seeds that they can “wake up” (called breaking dormancy) and start germinating. Seed stratification generally requires exposing the seeds to the right level of moisture and the right temperature for the right length of time. Some examples include:

  • Hot water soak – Pour hot water over seeds and allow them to soak overnight or for 24 hours
  • Cold moist stratification – Mix seeds with sterile sand, vermiculite, or another substance that won’t hold too much moisture. You could also place seeds between layers of a damp paper towel or coffee filter. Make sure that whatever medium you use is only damp and not too wet. Put the mixture in a plastic bag or closed container in your refrigerator for the required amount of time.

If you buy perennial wildflower seeds, they may have already been stratified. Follow the instructions that come with your seed or reach out to the seller for more information.

Light brown seeds sitting on top of damp potting mix in a plastic container
One way to stratify seeds (prepare them for germination) is to place them in moist potting mix in the refrigerator for several weeks to several months.

Species-specific instructions

Examples of perennial wildflower seeds that benefit from scarification and/or stratification follow. After these seeds are scarified and/or stratified, germination may be improved by putting them in a warm place (but not for all species). Remember that you can always sprinkle seeds on well-prepared, weed-free soil outside in the fall and let the winter do the work for you! Also, your experience germinating these seeds may differ from the recommendations below. There is so much beautiful diversity in these perennial wildflowers!

  • Blue false indigo (Baptisia australis) – First scarify the seeds. Gently rub them between medium-grit sandpaper to scratch the seed coat. Then use the cold moist stratification method, leaving them in the refrigerator for about 10 days.
  • New York Ironweed (Vernonia noveboracensis) – Use cold moist stratification, keeping seeds chilled for 60 days.
  • Asters (Symphyotrichum spp.) – If you look up how to seed asters, you’ll see different instructions for different species, including seeding them in the spring without stratification and using a 60-day cold stratification period. Amara tried germinating Symphyotrichum oblongifolium (aromatic aster) seed and had better luck with cold moist stratification than seeding without stratification. You might see different results with different species.
  • Milkweed (Asclepias spp.) – Store (well-dried!) seeds in the freezer for several months (e.g., from the time you harvest them in the fall, until you are ready to start them in the spring). Learn more from Petra at Fruition Seeds.
  • Coreopsis (Coreopsis spp.) – Note that some coreopsis species are annuals in upstate NY. Perennial species will likely germinate best with cold moist stratification (30-60 days, depending on species).
  • Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea) – These seeds will likely germinate just fine if you plant them in moist soil and provide warmth (e.g., a heat mat) just as you would annual seeds.
  • Blazing star (Liatris spicata) – Moist stratify for 60 days before planting seeds.
  • Beard tongue (Penstemon spp.) – Cold stratify for 30-60 days before planting seeds. Some species may require light for germination. Cover seed of these species with only a very thin layer of potting mix (if any) and provide light when germinating.
  • Mountain mints (Pycnanthemum spp.) – You should be able to germinate seeds without stratification, but they will likely germinate better with light. Cover seed with only a very thin layer of potting mix (if any) and provide light when germinating.
  • Rudbeckia (Rudbeckia spp.) – Different species of Rudbeckia may require different stratification (or none) for seed to germinate. For many species, cold moist stratification for at least 30 days is recommended.
  • Goldenrod (Solidago spp.) – There are many species. Most will likely germinate best if seed is moist stratified for 60 days, and then receive light after seeding. Cover seed with only a very thin layer of potting mix (if any) and provide light when germinating.
  • Spiderwort (Tradescantia ohiensis) – For this species, you are better off direct-seeding in the fall. The recommended cold moist stratification period is 120 days, and these seeds will germinate better in cool soil.
  • Golden alexanders (Zizia aurea) – You may have better luck sowing these seeds outside in the fall than trying to start them inside in the spring. Their leaves are fairly distinctive (like celery) so seedlings are easier to spot outdoors. If you do want to try starting them indoors, use a 60-day cold moist stratification.

For some of the species that require longer stratification, you may be worried that you’re running out of time this spring. Remember that even after you have prepared your seeds to germinate, they will likely need around 6 weeks to germinate and grow big enough to consider transplanting outdoors. Don’t despair! Fall is a great time to transplant perennial wildflowers. And perhaps your heat mats and grow lights (or other seed germination spot) are otherwise occupied starting annual vegetable and herb transplants this spring. If you start stratifying seeds in early May, even those that require 60 days in the fridge will be ready for germination in early July. Then your seedlings will have plenty of time to grow big and strong before fall transplanting. Just be sure to keep them watered.

 

Resources consulted on seed germination:

 

This post was written by Amara Dunn-Silver, Biocontrol Specialist and Elizabeth Lamb, Ornamentals IPM Coordinator with the NYSIPM Program.

This work is supported by NYS Departments of Environmental Conservation and Agriculture and Markets.

Announcements

Harvesting and sowing your own native seeds – August 17, 2023

Pink echinacea and bright yellow goldenrod flowers
Echinacea and goldenrod are just two species of native perennial wildflowers that feed beneficial insects.

For the past six years, we’ve been cultivating perennial grasses and wildflowers that feed and support beneficial insects. All of these plants came from seeds—whether sown by us or by others—and we’ll focus this year’s annual open house on these wonderful seeds.

Come join folks from New York State Integrated Pest Management, and Petra Page-Mann from Fruition Seeds to talk about how we harvest, clean, store, and germinate seeds of perennial wildflowers that support beneficial insects. Stop by our open house between 3:30 and 6:30 p.m on Thursday, August 17. We’ll offer guided explorations of our established plots of perennial wildflowers and grasses at 3:45, 4:45, and 5:45 p.m. You are also welcome to explore the field on your own, or browse our interactive resources on display. There will be a few hard copies of resources available at the event, and we’ll continue to add digital resources to this folder up to and following the event. Everyone will go home with seeds of native perennial plants that support beneficial insects.

No registration needed for this free event. Find all the details at our event page. When you arrive at the entrance to the farm, look for signs with the pink echinacea flower and the Christmas tree on them, and follow the signs to our field.

Graphic of pink echinacea flower, Christmas tree, and the NYSIPM logo
Follow these signs to find our field!

Funds for this project were provided by NYS Dept of Ag and Markets and the USDA National Institute of Food and Ag.

Uncategorized

Managing tomato bacterial diseases? Biopesticides could help

Are you using copper to protect your tomatoes from bacterial diseases? Research from Cornell suggests that you could replace some of those copper applications with a biopesticide.

Two pictures of tomato leaves showing small brown specks, and larger specks or groups of specks surrounded by yellow margins
On tomatoes bacterial speck and spot both look like small black spots which may develop yellow halos around them as the lesions age.

Preventing bacterial diseases on your tomatoes starts with good integrated pest management practices.

  • > 3-year rotation out of tomatoes and peppers
  • Clean seed or disease-free transplants
  • Heat treat seed (unless it is pelleted or treated)
  • Good sanitation in transplant production facility (e.g., new flats or sanitize between uses, sanitize greenhouse after each season)
  • Inspect transplants and destroy any with symptoms of bacterial disease
  • Do not work in tomatoes (e.g., tie, prune) when leaves are wet
  • Either sanitize tomato stakes between growing seasons, or use new stakes each year (preferred)
  • If you have an outbreak, till in plant debris quickly.
Green tomato fruit held in a white person’s hand with four black and brown spots, each surrounded by a white halo
Bacterial canker lesions on tomato fruit

If you are doing all of these things and still need some extra protection from bacterial diseases (e.g., in a wet growing season), pesticides might also be in your IPM toolbox.

In New York, we’re fortunate that so far few bacterial isolates have been found to be resistant to copper. Copper resistance is a major problem in the southern U.S. and we’d certainly like to preserve its efficacy here in NY. Some people are also understandably concerned about the environmental impacts of using a lot of copper on their farms.

Cornell vegetable research programs led by Chris Smart and Meg McGrath have been testing products against our three bacterial diseases – spot (Xanthomonas), speck (Pseudomonas) and canker (Clavibacter) for a number of years. So far, two products – Double Nickel LC (1 qt/A recommended) and LifeGard (4.5 oz/100 gal water) – have been rising to the top. When comparing these products alone to alternating either with copper, both worked better as replacements for some copper sprays than alone. Some research trials only included the biopesticide by itself, but the Double Nickel label states that it should be applied only tank mixed or rotated with copper-based fungicides.

Double Nickel alone (one year of data in Geneva) was as good as copper against bacterial spot. Double Nickel alone (two years of data in Geneva) and LifeGard alternated with copper (one year on Long Island) were as good as copper against bacterial speck. While neither product is registered (legal) for use against tomato canker, in research trials in Geneva, Double Nickel (one year) and LifeGard (two years) alternated with copper controlled canker as well as copper alone. So if you are replacing some copper sprays with either Double Nickel or LifeGard, you’ll likely notice some incidental bacterial canker protection, too.

New to using biopesticides? The New York State IPM Program has a new resource to help. Biopesticide profiles (scroll to bottom of page) for Double Nickel, LifeGard, and seven other products provide information on tank mix compatibility, shelf life, and other practical tips.

Screen shot of a website section entitled Biopesticide Profiles. PDFs of these profiles are available for Actinovate, Contans WG, Double Nickel, LifeGard, Regalia, Serifel, Stargus, Theia, and Timorex ACT
Follow the link in the text and scroll to the bottom of the page to find these biopesticide profiles from the NYSIPM program.

Changes in pesticide registrations occur constantly and human errors are possible. Read the label before applying any pesticide. The label is the law. No endorsement of companies is made or implied.

 

This post was written by Amara Dunn, Biocontrol Specialist with the NYSIPM program, and Chris Smart, Professor in the School of Integrative Plant Science, Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology Section at Cornell University. Support for this project was provided by the NY Farm Viability Institute.

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Uncategorised

New from NYSIPM: Biopesticide Profiles

Screen shot of a website section entitled Biopesticide Profiles. PDFs of these profiles are available for Actinovate, Contans WG, Double Nickel, LifeGard, Regalia, Serifel, Stargus, Theia, and Timorex ACT
Follow the link in the text and scroll to the bottom of the page to find these biopesticide profiles from the NYSIPM program.

I’m excited to announce that the New York State IPM Program has a new resource – Biopesticide Profiles!

(Scroll down to the bottom of the page linked above, past the efficacy summaries, which are also cool.)

So far, we have profiles for nine biopesticides registered for use on various crops in NY (including one for use in home gardens) against plant diseases. I plan to add more profiles over time, and will definitely add some bioinsecticides in the future.

These profiles are not meant to replace pesticide labels; always read and follow the label and only use pesticides that are currently registered in your state or province. These profiles have practical details about how to use biopesticides most effectively, including information on mode of action, compatibility with other pesticides, best storage conditions, and shelf life. I’ve also included information on any known toxicity concerns for not just bees, but other beneficial insects like natural enemies of pests.

Screen shot of the NYSIPM Biopesticide Profile for Actinovate which contains the active ingredient Streptomyces lydicus WYEC 108 (alive). Other information includes the available formulations, types of pests targeted, the fungicide resistance action committee number, the mode of action, and the best environmental conditions under which to use it.
Just some of the practical information you can find on the NYSIPM biopesticide profiles.

I collected this information from pesticide labels, pesticide manufacturers, EPA registration documents, and peer-reviewed literature, to save you time when you’re considering using a biopesticide. But you should still always read the label.

Take a look and let me know what you think! Which biopesticides should be next on my list?

 

This post was written by Amara Dunn, Biocontrol Specialist with the NYSIPM program. Support for this project was provided by the NY Farm Viability Institute.

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Biocontrol info from NYS IPM